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<title>Fire-control system</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fire-control system</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the process of suppressing or extinguishing a fire, see <a href="Fire_control" title="Fire control">Fire control</a>.</div>

<p>A <b>fire-control system</b> (<b>FCS</b>) is a number of components working together, usually a <a href="Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">gun data computer</a>, a <a href="Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">director</a> and <a href="Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, which is designed to assist a ranged weapon system to target, track, and hit a target. It performs the same task as a human <a href="Crew-served_weapon" title="Crew-served weapon">gunner</a> firing a weapon, but attempts to do so faster and more accurately.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naval_fire_control">Naval fire control</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control system</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div>

<p>The original fire-control systems were developed for ships.

</p><p>The early history of naval fire control was dominated by the engagement of targets within visual range (also referred to as <a href="Indirect_fire" title="Indirect fire">direct fire</a>). In fact, most naval engagements before 1800 were conducted at ranges of 20 to 50 yards (20 to 50 m).<sup id="cite_ref-early_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-early-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

Even during the <a href="American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">famous engagement</a> between <a href="USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a> and <a href="CSS_Virginia" title="CSS Virginia">CSS <i>Virginia</i></a> was often conducted at less than 100 yards (90 m) range.<sup id="cite_ref-monitor_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-monitor-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Rapid technical improvements in the late 19th century greatly increased the range at which gunfire was possible. <a href="Rifled" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifled">Rifled</a> guns of much larger size firing explosive shells of lighter relative weight (compared to all-metal balls) so greatly increased the range of the guns that the main problem became aiming them while the ship was moving on the waves. This problem was solved with the introduction of the <a href="Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">gyroscope</a>, which corrected this motion and provided sub-degree accuracies. Guns were now free to grow to any size, and quickly surpassed <a href="EOC_10_inch_40_caliber" title="EOC 10 inch 40 caliber">10 inches (250 mm)</a> calibre by the 1890s. These guns were capable of such great range that the primary limitation was seeing the target, leading to the use of high masts on ships.

</p><p>Another technical improvement was the introduction of the <a href="Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> which greatly increased the performance of the ships. Earlier <a href="Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">reciprocating engine</a> powered capital ships were capable of perhaps 16 knots, but the first large turbine ships were capable of over 20 knots. Combined with the long range of the guns, this meant that the target ship could move a considerable distance, several ship lengths, between the time the shells were fired and landed. One could no longer <i>eyeball</i> the aim with any hope of accuracy. Moreover, in naval engagements it is also necessary to control the firing of several guns at once.

</p><p>Naval gun fire control potentially involves three levels of complexity. Local control originated with primitive gun installations aimed by the individual gun crews. Director control aims all guns on the ship at a single target. Coordinated gunfire from a formation of ships at a single target was a focus of battleship fleet operations. Corrections are made for surface wind velocity, firing ship roll and pitch, powder magazine temperature, drift of rifled projectiles, individual gun bore diameter adjusted for shot-to-shot enlargement, and rate of change of range with additional modifications to the firing solution based upon the observation of preceding shots.

</p><p>The resulting directions, known as a <b>firing solution</b>, would then be fed back out to the turrets for laying. If the rounds missed, an observer could work out how far they missed by and in which direction, and this information could be fed back into the computer along with any changes in the rest of the information and another shot attempted.

</p><p>At first, the guns were aimed using the technique of <a href="Artillery_spotting" class="mw-redirect" title="Artillery spotting">artillery spotting</a>. It involved firing a gun at the target, observing the projectile's point of impact (fall of shot), and correcting the aim based on where the shell was observed to land, which became more and more difficult as the range of the gun increased.<sup id="cite_ref-early_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-early-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spotting_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spotting-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Between the <a href="American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> and 1905, numerous small improvements, such as telescopic sights and optical <a href="Rangefinders" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangefinders">rangefinders</a>, were made in fire control. There were also procedural improvements, like the use of <a href="Plotting_board" title="Plotting board">plotting boards</a> to manually predict the position of a ship during an engagement.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I">World War I</h3></div>

<p>Then increasingly sophisticated <a href="Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">mechanical calculators</a> were employed for proper <a href="Gun_laying" title="Gun laying">gun laying</a>, typically with various spotters and distance measures being sent to a central plotting station deep within the ship. There the fire direction teams fed in the location, speed and direction of the ship and its target, as well as various adjustments for <a href="Coriolis_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Coriolis effect">Coriolis effect</a>, weather effects on the air, and other adjustments. Around 1905, mechanical fire control aids began to become available, such as the <a href="Frederic_Charles_Dreyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Charles Dreyer">Dreyer Table</a>, <a href="Dumaresq" title="Dumaresq">Dumaresq</a> (which was also part of the Dreyer Table), and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dreadnoughtproject.org/tech/essays/FireControl/ArgoAimCorrector/">Argo Clock</a>, but these devices took a number of years to become widely deployed.<sup id="cite_ref-aid_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aid-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-reasons_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reasons-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These devices were early forms of <a href="Rangekeeper" title="Rangekeeper">rangekeepers</a>.

</p><p><a href="Arthur_Pollen" title="Arthur Pollen">Arthur Pollen</a> and <a href="Frederic_Charles_Dreyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Charles Dreyer">Frederic Charles Dreyer</a> independently developed the first such systems. Pollen began working on the problem after noting the poor accuracy of naval artillery at a gunnery practice near <a href="Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="William_Thomson%2C_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>, widely regarded as Britain's leading scientist first proposed using an analogue computer to solve the equations which arise from the relative motion of the ships engaged in the battle and the time delay in the flight of the shell to calculate the required trajectory and therefore the direction and elevation of the guns.

</p><p>Pollen aimed to produce a combined <a href="Calculating_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Calculating machine">mechanical computer</a> and automatic plot of ranges and rates for use in centralised fire control. To obtain accurate data of the target's position and relative motion, Pollen developed a plotting unit (or plotter) to capture this data. To this he added a gyroscope to allow for the <a href="Yaw_angle" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaw angle">yaw</a> of the firing ship. Like the plotter, the primitive gyroscope of the time required substantial development to provide continuous and reliable guidance.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the trials in 1905 and 1906 were unsuccessful, they showed promise. Pollen was encouraged in his efforts by the rapidly rising figure of Admiral <a href="John_Fisher%2C_1st_Baron_Fisher" title="John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher">Jackie Fisher</a>, Admiral <a href="Arthur_Knyvet_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Knyvet Wilson">Arthur Knyvet Wilson</a> and the Director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes (DNO), <a href="John_Jellicoe%2C_1st_Earl_Jellicoe" title="John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe">John Jellicoe</a>. Pollen continued his work, with occasional tests carried out on Royal Navy warships.

</p><p>Meanwhile, a group led by Dreyer designed a similar system. Although both systems were ordered for new and existing ships of the Royal Navy, the Dreyer system eventually found most favour with the Navy in its definitive Mark IV* form. The addition of <a href="Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">director</a> control facilitated a full, practicable fire control system for World War I ships, and most RN capital ships were so fitted by mid 1916. The director was high up over the ship where operators had a superior view over any gunlayer in the <a href="Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">turrets</a>. It was also able to co-ordinate the fire of the turrets so that their combined fire worked together. This improved aiming and larger optical rangefinders improved the estimate of the enemy's position at the time of firing. The system was eventually replaced by the improved "<a href="Admiralty_Fire_Control_Table" title="Admiralty Fire Control Table">Admiralty Fire Control Table</a>" for ships built after 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control system</a></div>

<p>During their long service life, rangekeepers were updated often as technology advanced, and by <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> they were a critical part of an integrated fire-control system. The incorporation of radar into the fire-control system early in World War II provided ships the ability to conduct effective gunfire operations at long range in poor weather and at night.<sup id="cite_ref-updates_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-updates-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For U.S. Navy gun fire control systems, see <a href="Ship_gun_fire-control_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship gun fire-control systems">ship gun fire-control systems</a>.

</p><p>The use of director-controlled firing, together with the fire control computer, removed the control of the gun laying from the individual turrets to a central position; although individual gun mounts and multi-gun turrets would retain a local control option for use when battle damage limited director information transfer (these would be simpler versions called "turret tables" in the Royal Navy). Guns could then be fired in planned salvos, with each gun giving a slightly different trajectory. Dispersion of shot caused by differences in individual guns, individual projectiles, powder ignition sequences, and transient distortion of ship structure was undesirably large at typical naval engagement ranges. Directors high on the superstructure had a better view of the enemy than a turret mounted sight, and the crew operating them were distant from the sound and shock of the guns. Gun directors were topmost, and the ends of their optical rangefinders protruded from their sides, giving them a distinctive appearance.

</p><p>Unmeasured and uncontrollable ballistic factors, like high-altitude temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, wind direction and velocity, required final adjustment through observation of the fall of shot. Visual range measurement (of both target and shell splashes) was difficult prior to the availability of radar. The British favoured <a href="Coincidence_rangefinder" title="Coincidence rangefinder">coincidence rangefinders</a> while the Germans favoured the <a href="Stereoscopic_rangefinder" title="Stereoscopic rangefinder">stereoscopic type</a>. The former were less able to range on an indistinct target but easier on the operator over a long period of use, the latter the reverse.

</p>

<p>Submarines were also equipped with fire control computers for the same reasons, but their problem was even more pronounced; in a typical "shot", the <a href="Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a> would take one to two minutes to reach its target. Calculating the proper "lead" given the relative motion of the two vessels was very difficult, and <a href="Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">torpedo data computers</a> were added to dramatically improve the speed of these calculations.

</p><p>In a typical World War II British ship the fire control system connected the individual gun turrets to the director tower (where the sighting instruments were located) and the analogue computer in the heart of the ship. In the director tower, operators trained their telescopes on the target; one telescope measured elevation and the other bearing. Rangefinder telescopes on a separate mounting measured the distance to the target. These measurements were converted by the Fire Control Table into the bearings and elevations for the guns to fire upon. In the turrets, the gunlayers adjusted the elevation of their guns to match an indicator for the elevation transmitted from the Fire Control table—a turret layer did the same for bearing. When the guns were on target they were centrally fired.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Even with as much mechanization of the process, it still required a large human element; the Transmitting Station (the room that housed the Dreyer table) for HMS <i>Hood</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s main guns housed 27 crew.

</p><p>Directors were largely unprotected from enemy fire. It was difficult to put much weight of armour so high up on the ship, and even if the armour did stop a shot, the impact alone would likely knock the instruments out of alignment. Sufficient armour to protect from smaller shells and fragments from hits to other parts of the ship was the limit.

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<p>The performance of the analog computer was impressive. The battleship <a href="USS_North_Carolina_(BB-55)" title="USS North Carolina (BB-55)">USS <i>North Carolina</i></a> during a 1945 test was able to maintain an accurate firing solution<sup id="cite_ref-caveat_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caveat-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on a target during a series of high-speed turns.

<sup id="cite_ref-real_case_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-real_case-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a major advantage for a warship to be able to maneuver while engaging a target.

</p><p>Night naval engagements at long range became feasible when <a href="Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> data could be input to the rangekeeper. The effectiveness of this combination was demonstrated in November 1942 at the <a href="Naval_Battle_of_Guadalcanal" title="Naval Battle of Guadalcanal">Third Battle of Savo Island</a> when the <a href="USS_Washington_(BB-56)" title="USS Washington (BB-56)">USS <i>Washington</i></a> engaged the <a href="Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Japanese</a> <a href="Battleship" title="Battleship">battleship</a> <a href="Japanese_battleship_Kirishima" title="Japanese battleship Kirishima"><i>Kirishima</i></a> at a range of 8,400 yards (7.7 km) at night. <i> Kirishima</i> was set aflame, suffered a number of explosions, and was scuttled by her crew. She had been hit by at least nine 16-inch (410 mm) rounds out of 75 fired (12% hit rate).<sup id="cite_ref-early_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-early-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The wreck of <i>Kirishima</i> was discovered in 1992 and showed that the entire bow section of the ship was missing.<sup id="cite_ref-Ballard_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ballard-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The Japanese during World War II did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage.<sup id="cite_ref-Kirishima_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kirishima-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>By the 1950s <a href="Gun_turret" title="Gun turret">gun turrets</a> were increasingly unmanned, with gun laying controlled remotely from the ship's control centre using inputs from <a href="Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> and other sources.

</p><p>The last combat action for the analog rangekeepers, at least for the US Navy, was in the 1991 <a href="Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a><sup id="cite_ref-Retirement_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retirement-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when the rangekeepers on the <a href="Iowa-class_battleship" title="Iowa-class battleship"><i>Iowa</i>-class</a> <a href="Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> directed their last rounds in combat.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aircraft_based_fire_control">Aircraft based fire control</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_bomb_sights">World War II bomb sights</h3></div>

<p>An early use of fire-control systems was in <a href="Bomber_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomber aircraft">bomber aircraft</a>, with the use of computing <a href="Bombsight" title="Bombsight">bombsights</a> that accepted altitude and airspeed information to predict and display the impact point of a bomb released at that time. The best known United States device was the <a href="Norden_bombsight" title="Norden bombsight">Norden bombsight</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_aerial_gunnery_sights">World War II aerial gunnery sights</h3></div>

<p>Simple systems, known as <i>lead computing sights</i> also made their appearance inside aircraft late in the war as <a href="Gyro_gunsight" title="Gyro gunsight">gyro gunsights</a>. These devices used a <a href="Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">gyroscope</a> to measure turn rates, and moved the gunsight's aim-point to take this into account, with the aim point presented through a <a href="Reflector_sight" title="Reflector sight">reflector sight</a>. The only manual "input" to the sight was the target distance, which was typically handled by dialing in the size of the target's wing span at some known range. Small <a href="Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> units were added in the post-war period to automate even this input, but it was some time before they were fast enough to make the pilots completely happy with them. The first implementation of a centralized fire control system in a production aircraft was on the <a href="B-29" class="mw-redirect" title="B-29">B-29</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-World_War_II_systems">Post-World War II systems</h3></div>

<p>By the start of the Vietnam War, a new computerized bombing predictor, called the <a href="Low_Altitude_Bombing_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Altitude Bombing System">Low Altitude Bombing System</a> (LABS), began to be integrated into the systems of aircraft equipped to carry nuclear armaments. This new bomb computer was revolutionary in that the release command for the bomb was given by the computer, not the pilot; the pilot designated the target using the radar or other <a href="Targeting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Targeting system">targeting system</a>, then "consented" to release the weapon, and the computer then did so at a calculated "release point" some seconds later. This is very different from previous systems, which, though they had also become computerized, still calculated an "impact point" showing where the bomb would fall if the bomb were released at that moment. The key advantage is that the weapon can be released accurately even when the plane is maneuvering. Most bombsights until this time required that the plane maintain a constant attitude (usually level), though dive-bombing sights were also common.

</p><p>The LABS system was originally designed to facilitate a tactic called <a href="Toss_bombing" title="Toss bombing">toss bombing</a>, to allow the aircraft to remain out of range of a weapon's <a href="Explosion" title="Explosion">blast radius</a>. The principle of calculating the release point, however, was eventually integrated into the fire control computers of later bombers and strike aircraft, allowing level, dive and toss bombing. In addition, as the fire control computer became integrated with ordnance systems, the computer can take the flight characteristics of the weapon to be launched into account.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Land_based_fire_control">Land based fire control</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-aircraft_based_fire_control">Anti-aircraft based fire control</h3></div>

<p>By the start of <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, aircraft altitude performance had increased so much that <a href="Anti-aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-aircraft">anti-aircraft</a> guns had similar predictive problems, and were increasingly equipped with fire-control computers. The main difference between these systems and the ones on ships was size and speed. The early versions of the <a href="High_Angle_Control_System" class="mw-redirect" title="High Angle Control System">High Angle Control System</a>, or HACS, of <a href="UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">Britain</a>'s <a href="Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> were examples of a system that predicted based upon the assumption that target speed, direction, and altitude would remain constant during the prediction cycle, which consisted of the time to fuze the shell and the time of flight of the shell to the target. The USN Mk 37 system made similar assumptions except that it could predict assuming a constant rate of altitude change. The <a href="Kerrison_Predictor" title="Kerrison Predictor">Kerrison Predictor</a> is an example of a system that was built to solve laying in "real time", simply by pointing the director at the target and then aiming the gun at a pointer it directed. It was also deliberately designed to be small and light, in order to allow it to be easily moved along with the guns it served.

</p><p>The radar-based <a href="SCR-584_radar" title="SCR-584 radar">M-9/SCR-584 Anti-Aircraft System</a> was used to direct air defense artillery since 1943. The MIT Radiation Lab's <a href="SCR-584" class="mw-redirect" title="SCR-584">SCR-584</a> was the first radar system with automatic following, <a href="Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Laboratory</a>'s M-9<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was an electronic analog fire-control computer that replaced complicated and difficult-to-manufacture mechanical computers (such as the Sperry M-7 or British Kerrison predictor). In combination with the VT <a href="Proximity_fuze" title="Proximity fuze">proximity fuze</a>, this system accomplished the astonishing feat of shooting down <a href="V-1_(flying_bomb)" class="mw-redirect" title="V-1 (flying bomb)">V-1</a> cruise missiles with less than 100 shells per plane (thousands were typical in earlier AA systems).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system was instrumental in the defense of London and Antwerp against the V-1.

</p><p>Although listed in Land based fire control section anti-aircraft fire control systems can also be found on naval and aircraft systems.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coast_artillery_fire_control">Coast artillery fire control</h3></div>

<p>In the <a href="United_States_Army_Coast_Artillery_Corps" title="United States Army Coast Artillery Corps">United States Army Coast Artillery Corps</a>, <a href="Coast_Artillery_fire_control_system" title="Coast Artillery fire control system">Coast Artillery fire control systems</a> began to be developed at the end of the 19th century and progressed on through World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Early systems made use of multiple observation or <a href="Base_end_station" title="Base end station">base end stations</a> (see <i>Figure 1</i>) to find and track targets attacking American harbors. Data from these stations were then passed to <a href="Plotting_room" title="Plotting room">plotting rooms</a>, where analog mechanical devices, such as the <a href="Plotting_board" title="Plotting board">plotting board</a>, were used to estimate targets' positions and derive firing data for batteries of coastal guns assigned to interdict them.

</p><p><a href="Seacoast_defense_in_the_United_States" title="Seacoast defense in the United States">U.S. Coast Artillery forts</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bristled with a variety of armament, ranging from 12-inch coast defense mortars, through 3-inch and 6-inch mid-range artillery, to the larger guns, which included 10-inch and 12-inch barbette and disappearing carriage guns, 14-inch railroad artillery, and 16-inch cannon installed just prior to and up through World War II.

</p><p>Fire control in the Coast Artillery became more and more sophisticated in terms of <a href="Corrected_firing_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrected firing data">correcting firing data</a> for such factors as weather conditions, the condition of powder used, or the Earth's rotation. Provisions were also made for adjusting firing data for the observed fall of shells. As shown in Figure 2, all of these data were fed back to the plotting rooms on a finely tuned schedule controlled by a system of time interval bells that rang throughout each harbor defense system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>It was only later in World War II that electro-mechanical <a href="Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">gun data computers</a>, connected to coast defense radars, began to replace optical observation and manual plotting methods in controlling coast artillery. Even then, the manual methods were retained as a back-up through the end of the war.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direct_and_indirect_fire_control_systems">Direct and indirect fire control systems</h3></div>

<p>Land based fire control systems can be used to aid in both <a href="Direct_fire" title="Direct fire">Direct fire</a> and <a href="Indirect_fire" title="Indirect fire">Indirect fire</a> weapon engagement. These systems can be found on weapons ranging from small handguns to large artillery weapons.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_fire_control_systems">Modern fire control systems</h2></div>

<p>Modern fire-control computers, like all high-performance computers, are digital. The added performance allows basically any input to be added, from air density and wind, to wear on the barrels and distortion due to heating. These sorts of effects are noticeable for any sort of gun, and fire-control computers have started appearing on smaller and smaller platforms. Tanks were one early use that automated gun laying had, using a <a href="Laser_rangefinder" title="Laser rangefinder">laser rangefinder</a> and a barrel-distortion meter. Fire-control computers are useful not just for aiming large <a href="Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a>, but also for aiming <a href="Machine_guns" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine guns">machine guns</a>, small cannons, <a href="Guided_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missile">guided missiles</a>, <a href="Rifle" title="Rifle">rifles</a>, <a href="Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a>, and <a href="Rocket" title="Rocket">rockets</a>—any kind of weapon that can have its launch or firing parameters varied. They are typically installed on <a href="Ship" title="Ship">ships</a>, <a href="Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>, <a href="Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a>, <a href="Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a> and even on some <a href="SALW" class="mw-redirect" title="SALW">small arms</a>—for example, the <a href="FN_F2000#Grenade_launcher" title="FN F2000">grenade launcher</a> developed for use on the Fabrique Nationale F2000 bullpup assault rifle. Fire-control computers have gone through all the stages of technology that computers have, with some designs based upon <a href="Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analogue technology</a> and later <a href="Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> which were later replaced with <a href="Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>.

</p><p>Fire-control systems are often interfaced with <a href="Sensor" title="Sensor">sensors</a> (such as <a href="Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a>, <a href="Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="Infra-red_search_and_track" class="mw-redirect" title="Infra-red search and track">infra-red search and track</a>, <a href="Laser_range-finder" class="mw-redirect" title="Laser range-finder">laser range-finders</a>, <a href="Anemometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Anemometers">anemometers</a>, <a href="Wind_vane" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind vane">wind vanes</a>, <a href="Thermometer" title="Thermometer">thermometers</a>, <a href="Barometer" title="Barometer">barometers</a>, etc.) in order to cut down or eliminate the amount of information that must be manually entered in order to calculate an effective solution. Sonar, radar, <a href="IRST" class="mw-redirect" title="IRST">IRST</a> and range-finders can give the system the direction to and/or distance of the target. Alternatively, an optical sight can be provided that an operator can simply point at the target, which is easier than having someone input the range using other methods and gives the target less warning that it is being tracked. Typically, weapons fired over long ranges need environmental information—the farther a <a href="Munition" class="mw-redirect" title="Munition">munition</a> travels, the more the wind, temperature, air density, etc. will affect its trajectory, so having accurate information is essential for a good solution. Sometimes, for very long-range rockets, environmental data has to be obtained at high altitudes or in between the launching point and the target. Often, satellites or balloons are used to gather this information.

</p><p>Once the firing solution is calculated, many modern fire-control systems are also able to aim and fire the weapon(s). Once again, this is in the interest of speed and accuracy, and in the case of a vehicle like an aircraft or tank, in order to allow the pilot/gunner/etc. to perform other actions simultaneously, such as tracking the target or flying the aircraft. Even if the system is unable to aim the weapon itself, for example the fixed cannon on an aircraft, it is able to give the operator cues on how to aim. Typically, the cannon points straight ahead and the pilot must maneuver the aircraft so that it oriented correctly before firing. In most aircraft the aiming cue takes the form of a "<a href="Pipper" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipper">pipper</a>" which is projected on the <a href="Heads-up_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Heads-up display">heads-up display</a> (HUD). The pipper shows the pilot where the target must be relative to the aircraft in order to hit it. Once the pilot maneuvers the aircraft so that the target and pipper are superimposed, he or she fires the weapon, or on some aircraft the weapon will fire automatically at this point, in order to overcome the delay of the pilot. In the case of a missile launch, the fire-control computer may give the pilot feedback about whether the target is in range of the missile and how likely the missile is to hit if launched at any particular moment. The pilot will then wait until the probability reading is satisfactorily high before launching the weapon.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Target_acquisition" title="Target acquisition">Target acquisition</a></li>

<li><a href="Counter-battery_radar" title="Counter-battery radar">Counter-battery radar</a></li>

<li><a href="Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li>

<li><a href="Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li>

<li><a href="Gun_stabilizer" title="Gun stabilizer">Gun stabilizer</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_U.S._Army_fire_control_and_sighting_material_by_supply_catalog_designation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. Army fire control and sighting material by supply catalog designation">List of U.S. Army fire control and sighting material by supply catalog designation</a></li>

<li><a href="Predicted_impact_point" title="Predicted impact point">Predicted impact point</a></li>

<li><a href="Ship_gun_fire-control_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship gun fire-control systems">Ship gun fire-control systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Tartar_Guided_Missile_Fire_Control_System" title="Tartar Guided Missile Fire Control System">Tartar Guided Missile Fire Control System</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFA._Ben_Clymer1993" class="citation journal cs1">A. Ben Clymer (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/STS.035/www/PDFs/Newell.pdf">"The Mechanical Analog Computers of Hannibal Ford and William Newell"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</i>. <b>15</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">19–</span>34. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F85.207741">10.1109/85.207741</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6500043">6500043</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-08-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-monitor-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-monitor_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060713014755/http://www.monitorcenter.org/history/chronology/chronology2.php">"Chronology of the USS Monitor: From Inception to Sinking"</a>. <i>The Mariner's Museum</i>. USS Monitor Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.monitorcenter.org/history/chronology/chronology2.php">the original</a> on 2006-07-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-08-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-spotting-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-spotting_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The increasing range of the guns also forced ships to create very high observation points from which optical rangefinders and artillery spotters could see the battle. The need to spot artillery shells was one of the compelling reasons behind the development of naval aviation and early aircraft were used to spot the naval gunfire points of impact. In some cases, ships launched manned <a href="Observation_balloon" title="Observation balloon">observation balloons</a> as a way to artillery spot. Even today, artillery spotting is an important part of directing gunfire, though today the spotting is often done by <a href="Unmanned_aerial_vehicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned aerial vehicles">unmanned aerial vehicles</a>. For example, during <a href="Desert_Storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Desert Storm">Desert Storm</a>, <a href="RQ-2_Pioneer" class="mw-redirect" title="RQ-2 Pioneer">UAVs</a> spotted fire for the <i>Iowa</i>-class battleships involved in shore bombardment.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gwpda.org/naval/usnfirec.htm">US Naval Fire Control, 1918</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-aid-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aid_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMindell2002" class="citation book cs1">Mindell, David (2002). <i>Between Human and Machine</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. <span class="nowrap">25–</span>28. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8018-8057-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-reasons-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-reasons_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reasons were for this slow deployment are complex. As in most bureaucratic environments, institutional inertia and the revolutionary nature of the change required caused the major navies to move slow in adopting the technology.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pollen 'Gunnery' p. 23</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pollen 'Gunnery' p. 36</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a description of an Admiralty Fire Control Table in action: <cite id="CITEREFCooper" class="citation web cs1">Cooper, Arthur. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ahoy.tk-jk.net/GentlemansCordite/AglimpseatNavalGunnery..html">"A Glimpse at Naval Gunnery"</a>. Ahoy: Naval, Maritime, Australian History.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-updates-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-updates_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The degree of updating varied by country. For example, the US Navy used servomechanisms to automatically steer their guns in both azimuth and elevation. The Germans used servomechanisms to steer their guns only in elevation, and the British began to introduce Remote Power Control in elevation and deflection of 4-inch, 4.5-inch and 5.25-inch guns in 1942, according to Naval Weapons of WW2, by Campbell. For example <a href="HMS_Anson_(79)" title="HMS Anson (79)">HMS <i>Anson</i></a><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s 5.25-inch guns had been upgraded to full RPC in time for her Pacific deployment.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B.R. 901/43, <i>Handbook of The Admiralty Fire Control Clock Mark I and I*</i></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-caveat-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-caveat_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The rangekeeper in this exercise maintained a firing solution that was accurate within a few hundred yards (or meters), which is within the range needed for an effective rocking <a href="Salvo" title="Salvo">salvo</a>. The rocking salvo was used by the US Navy to get the final corrections needed to hit the target.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-real_case-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-real_case_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJurens1991" class="citation journal cs1">Jurens, W.J. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061120223502/http://www.navweaps.com/index_inro/INRO_BB-Gunnery_p1.htm">"The Evolution of Battleship Gunnery in the U.S. Navy, 1920–1945"</a>. <i>Warship International</i> (3): 255. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.navweaps.com/index_inro/INRO_BB-Gunnery_p1.htm">the original</a> on 2006-11-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-10-18</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ballard-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ballard_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_P._Tully2003" class="citation web cs1">Anthony P. Tully (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.combinedfleet.com/atully08.htm">"Located/Surveyed Shipwrecks of the Imperial Japanese Navy"</a>. <i>Mysteries/Untold Sagas Of The Imperial Japanese Navy</i>. CombinedFleet.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Kirishima-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kirishima_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMindell2002" class="citation book cs1">Mindell, David (2002). <i>Between Human and Machine</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. pp. <span class="nowrap">262–</span>263. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-8018-8057-2</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Retirement-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Retirement_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006223630/http://www.dogtagsrus.com/p-38%20can%20opener%20articles.htm">"Older weapons hold own in high-tech war"</a>. <i>Dallas Morning News</i>. 1991-02-10. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dogtagsrus.com/p-38%20can%20opener%20articles.htm">the original</a> on 2006-10-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-09-30</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2020" class="citation web cs1">Moore, Christopher (12 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/defending-superbomber-b-29s-central-fire-control-system">"Defending the Superbomber: The B-29's Central Fire Control System"</a>. <i>National Air and Space Museum</i>. Smithsonian Institution<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Bell_Laboratories_Record_Issue_Key.htm">"BLOW HOT-BLOW COLD - The M9 never failed"</a>. <i>Bell Laboratories Record</i>. <b>XXIV</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">454–</span>456. Dec 1946.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baxter, "Scientists Against Time"</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennett, "A History of Control Engineering"</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For early background, see "Fire Control and Position Finding: Background" by Bolling W. Smith in Mark Berhow, Ed., "American Seacoast Defenses: A Reference Guide," CDSG Press, McLean, VA, 2004, p. 257.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example, the write-up on <a href="Fort_Andrews" title="Fort Andrews">Fort Andrews</a> in Boston Harbor for a summary of artillery assets and fire control systems typical of these defenses.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a complete description of fire control in the Coast Artillery, see "FM 4-15 Coast Artillery Field Manual-Seacoast Artillery Fire Control and Position Finding," U.S. War Department, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1940.</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBaxter,_James_Phinney1946" class="citation book cs1">Baxter, James Phinney (1946). <i>Scientists Against Time</i>. Little, Brown and Company. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-26252-012-5</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_John1985" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, John (1985). <i>Naval Weapons of World War Two</i>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-87021-459-4</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFairfield,_A.P.1921" class="citation book cs1">Fairfield, A.P. (1921). <i>Naval Ordnance</i>. The Lord Baltimore Press.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFrieden,_David_R.1985" class="citation book cs1">Frieden, David R. (1985). <i>Principles of Naval Weapons Systems</i>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-87021-537-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFriedman,_Norman2008" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Norman (2008). <i>Naval Firepower: Battleship Guns and Gunnery in the Dreadnought Era</i>. Seaforth. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84415-701-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHansTaranovich2012" class="citation web cs1">Hans, Mort; Taranovich, Steve (10 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edn.com/design-hindsight-from-the-tail-gunner-position-of-a-wwii-bomber-part-one">"Design hindsight from the tail-gunner position of a WWII bomber, Part one"</a>. <i>EDN</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPollen,_Antony1980" class="citation book cs1">Pollen, Antony (1980). <i>The Great Gunnery Scandal — The Mystery of Jutland</i>. Collins. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-00-216298-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRoch" class="citation web cs1">Roch, Axel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200215212259/http://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/prod/siliconbase/wip/control.html">"Fire-Control and Human-Computer Interaction: Towards a History of the Computer Mouse (1940-1965)"</a>. <i>Stanford University</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/prod//siliconbase/wip/control.html">the original</a> on 15 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchleihauf2001" class="citation journal cs1">Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XXXVIII</b> (1). International Naval Research Organization: <span class="nowrap">6–</span>29. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchleihauf2001" class="citation journal cs1">Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part II". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XXXVIII</b> (2). International Naval Research Organization: <span class="nowrap">164–</span>201. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSchleihauf2001" class="citation journal cs1">Schleihauf, William (2001). "The Dumaresq and the Dreyer, Part III". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XXXVIII</b> (3). International Naval Research Organization: <span class="nowrap">221–</span>233. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWright2004" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, Christopher C. (2004). "Questions on the Effectiveness of U.S. Navy Battleship Gunnery: Notes on the Origin of U.S. Navy Gun Fire Control System Range Keepers". <i>Warship International</i>. <b>XLI</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>78. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0043-0374">0043-0374</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Fire_control_systems" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Fire control systems">Fire control systems</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sExvSbe9MSsC">Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing Before Cybernetics – Google Books</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.telus.net/public/idougl88/bshipweb.txt">BASIC programs for battleship and antiaircraft gun fire control</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121003052835/http://www3.telus.net/public/idougl88/bshipweb.txt">Archived</a> 2012-10-03 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usasymposium.com/nfcs/">National Fire Control Symposium</a></li></ul>

<p><br>

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</style><div id="NATO_naval_weapons_systems62" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">NATO naval weapons systems</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li>

<li><a href="Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li>

<li><a href="Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li>

<li><a href="Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li>

<li><a href="Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li>

<li><i>Historical:</i></li>

<li><a href="Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Naval_artillery" title="Naval artillery">Naval artillery</a></li>

<li><a href="Guided_missiles" class="mw-redirect" title="Guided missiles">Guided missiles</a></li>

<li><a href="Torpedoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Torpedoes">Torpedoes</a></li>

<li><a href="Depth_charges" class="mw-redirect" title="Depth charges">Depth charges</a></li>

<li><a href="Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">Close-in weapon system</a></li>

<li><a href="Naval_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval mines">Naval mines</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aegis_Combat_System" title="Aegis Combat System">Aegis Combat System</a></li>

<li><a href="Aegis_Ballistic_Missile_Defense_System" title="Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System">Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System</a></li>

<li><a href="Active_electronically_scanned_array" title="Active electronically scanned array">Active electronically scanned array</a></li>

<li><a href="Joint_Tactical_Information_Distribution_System" title="Joint Tactical Information Distribution System">Joint Tactical Information Distribution System</a></li>

<li><i>Historical systems:</i></li>

<li><i>Lists:</i></li>

<li><a href="List_of_radars" title="List of radars">List of radars</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_radar_types" title="List of radar types">List of radar types</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Radar5" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="AN/SPY-6" title="AN/SPY-6">AN/SPY-6 Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea-based_X-band_radar" title="Sea-based X-band radar">Sea-based X-band radar (SBX-1)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Optical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space-Based_Infrared_System" title="Space-Based Infrared System">Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Tracking_and_Surveillance_System" title="Space Tracking and Surveillance System">Space Tracking and Surveillance System (STSS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Surveillance_Telescope" title="Space Surveillance Telescope">Space Surveillance Telescope (SST)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Naval missiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Harpoon_missile" class="mw-redirect" title="Harpoon missile">Harpoon missile</a></li>

<li><a href="RIM-67_Standard" title="RIM-67 Standard">RIM-67 Standard (SM-2)</a></li>

<li><a href="RIM-161_Standard_Missile_3" title="RIM-161 Standard Missile 3">RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 (SM-3)</a></li>

<li><a href="RIM-174_Standard_ERAM" title="RIM-174 Standard ERAM">RIM-174 Standard Extended Range Active Missile (SM-6)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radar_in_World_War_II" title="Radar in World War II">Radar in World War II</a></li>

<li><a href="Rangekeeper" title="Rangekeeper">Rangekeeper</a></li>

<li><a href="Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo Data Computer</a></li>

<li><i>Ship systems:</i></li>

<li><a href="Naval_Tactical_Data_System" title="Naval Tactical Data System">Naval Tactical Data System</a></li>

<li><a href="Comprehensive_Display_System" title="Comprehensive Display System">Comprehensive Display System</a></li>

<li><a href="Sonar#ASDIC" title="Sonar">ASDIC</a></li>

<li><i>Specific equipment:</i></li>

<li><a href="Mark_I_Fire_Control_Computer" title="Mark I Fire Control Computer">Mark I Fire Control Computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_8_Fire_Control_Computer" title="Mark 8 Fire Control Computer">Mark 8 Fire Control Computer</a></li>

<li><i>Navboxes:</i></li>

<li><span class="nowrap">{{</span>USN early guided weapons<span class="nowrap">}}</span></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i>Ground-based systems:</i></li>

<li><a href="Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li>

<li><a href="Kerrison_Predictor" title="Kerrison Predictor">Kerrison Predictor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<li><a href="Naval_combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval combat">Naval combat</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox391" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Authority control databases: National </th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4205129-0">Germany</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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